Astrology consists of belief systems which hold that there is a relationship between astronomical phenomena and events in the human world. In the West, astrology most often consists of a system of horoscope that claim to explain aspects of a persons personality and predict future events in their life based on the positions of the sun, moon, and other planetary objects at the time of their birth. Many cultures have attached importance to astronomical events, and the Hindu astrology Chinese astrology and Mayans developed elaborate systems for predicting terrestrial events from celestial observations. Among Indo-European peoples, astrology has been dated to the 3rd millennium BCE with roots in Calendrical calculation systems used to predict seasonal shifts and to interpret celestial cycles as signs of divine communications.lt;/ref> Through most of its history, astrology was considered a scholarly tradition. It was accepted in political and academic contexts, and was connected with other studies, such as astronomy alchemy meteorology and medicine.lt;/ref> At the end of the 17th century, new scientific concepts in astronomy and physics (such as heliocentrism and classical mechanics called astrology into question, and subsequent controlled studies failed to confirm its predictive value. Astrology thus lost its academic and theoretical standing, and common belief in astrology has largely declined.lt;/ref> Astrology has been rejected by the scientific community as having no explanatory power for describing the universe (see pseudoscience . Astrology Scientific appraisal of astrology has been conducted, and no evidence has been found to support any of the premises or purported effects outlined in astrological traditions. Where astrology has made falsifiable predictions, it has been falsified.lt;/ref>There is no proposed mechanism of action by which the positions and motions of stars and planets could affect people and events on Earth that does not contradict well understood, basic aspects of biology and physics.lt;/ref>lt;ref> * lt;/ref>

Etymology

File Marcantonio Raimondi - Two Women with the Signs of Libra and Scorpio.jpg The word wikt astrology comes from the early Latin word [[wikt:astrologia|astrologia]]lt;/ref> deriving from the Greek noun account of the stars. Astrologialater passed into meaning star-divination with [[wikt:astronomia|astronomia]]used for the scientific term.lt;/ref>

Principles and practice

File Vitruvian macrocosm.jpg 16th-century illustration of man the microcosm within the universal macrocosm]] Advocates have defined astrology as a symbolic language, an art form, a science and a method of divination.The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, Encyclopaedia Britannica, v.5, 1974, p. 916Dietrich, Thomas: he Origin of Culture and Civilization, Phenix & Phenix Literary Publicists, 2005, p. 305 Although most cultural systems of astrology share common roots in ancient philosophies that influenced each other, many have unique methodologies which differ from those developed in the West. These include Hindu astrology (also known as "Indian astrology" and in modern times referred to as "Vedic astrology") and Chinese astrology, both of which have influenced the worlds cultural history. === Western === {{Details|Western astrology}} [[Western astrology]] is a form of [[divination]] based on the construction of a [[horoscope]] for an exact moment, such as a person birth.lt;/ref> It uses the tropical zodiac, which is aligned to the Equinox James R. Lewis, 2003. The Astrology Book: the Encyclopedia of Heavenly Influences Visible Ink Press. Online at Google Books. Western astrology is founded on the movements and relative positions of celestial bodies such as the Sun, Moon, planets, which are analyzed by their movement through Astrological sign of the zodiac (spatial divisions of the ecliptic and by their Astrological aspect (angles) relative to one another. They are also considered by their placement in House (astrology) (spatial divisions of the sky).lt;/ref> Astrologys modern representation in western popular media is usually reduced to sun sign astrology which considers only the zodiac sign of the Sun at an individuals date of birth, and represents only 1/12 of the total chart.lt;/ref> The names of the zodiac correspond to the names of the constellations originally within the respective segment and are in Latin. Along with tarot divination astrology is one of the core studies of Western esotericism and as such has influenced systems of magic (paranormal) belief not only among Western esotericists and Hermeticism but also belief systems such as Wicca that have borrowed from or been influenced by the Western esoteric tradition. Tanya Luhrmann has said that "all magicians know something about astrology," and refers to a table of correspondences in Starhawk s [[The Spiral Dance]] organized by planets in astrology as an example of the astrological lore studied by magicians.lt;/ref> File Brooklyn Museum - Page from an Astrological Treatise.jpg

Indian and South Asian

Hindu astrology originated with western astrology.lt;/ref>In the earliest Indian astronomy texts, the year was believed to be 360 days long, similar to that of Babylonian astrology, but the rest of the early astrological system bears little resemblance.lt;/ref>Later, the Indian techniques were augmented with some of the Babylonian techniques.

Chinese and East-Asian

Chinese astrology has a close relation with Chinese philosophy (theory of the three harmonies: heaven, earth and man) and uses concepts such as yin and yang the wu xing the 10 Celestial stems the 12 Earthly Branches and shichen (時辰 a form of timekeeping used for religious purposes). The early use of Chinese astrology was mainly confined to political astrology the observation of unusual phenomena, identification of portent (divination) and the selection of auspicious days for events and decisions.lt;/ref> The constellations of the Zodiac of western Asia and Europe were not used; instead the sky is divided into Three Enclosures (三垣 sān yuán), and Twenty-eight Mansions (二十八宿 èrshíbā xiù) in twelve Ci ( zh 分野 .F. Richard Stephenson, "Chinese Roots of Modern Astronomy", New Scientist 26 June 1980. See also http://www.lamost.org/~yzhao/history/xiu28.html 二十八宿的形成与演变] The Chinese zodiac of twelve Astrological sign Chinese zodiac signs is said to represent twelve different types of personality. It is based on cycles of years, lunar months, and two-hour periods of the day (the shichen). The zodiac traditionally begins with the sign of the Rat (zodiac) and the cycle proceeds through 11 other animals signs: the Ox (zodiac) Tiger (zodiac) Rabbit (zodiac) Dragon (zodiac) Snake (zodiac) Horse (zodiac) Goat (zodiac) Monkey (zodiac) Rooster (zodiac) Dog (zodiac) and Pig (zodiac) Theodora Lau, The Handbook of Chinese Horoscopes pp2-8, 30–5, 60–4, 88–94, 118–24, 148–53, 178–84, 208–13, 238–44, 270–78, 306–12, 338–44, Souvenir Press, New York, 2005 Complex systems of predicting fate and destiny based on ones birthday, birth season, and birth hours, such as zipingand Zi wei dou shu ( are still used regularly in modern day Chinese astrology. They do not rely on direct observations of the stars.lt;/ref> The Korean zodiac is identical to the Chinese one. The Vietnamese zodiac is almost identical to Chinese zodiac except the second animal is the [[Water buffalo (zodiac)|Water Buffalo]]instead of the [[Ox (zodiac)|Ox]] and the fourth animal is the [[Cat (zodiac)|Cat]]instead of the [[Rabbit (zodiac)|Rabbit]] The Japanese zodiac includes the [[Wild Boar]]instead of the [[Pig (zodiac)|Pig]]and the Japanese have since 1873 celebrated the beginning of the new year on the 1st of January as per the Gregorian Calendar The Thai zodiac includes a [[naga (mythology)|Naga]]in place of the [[Dragon (zodiac)|Dragon]]citation needed|dateJuly 2012}} and begins, not at Chinese New Year but either on the first day of fifth month in the Thai lunar calendar or during the Songkran (Thailand) festival (now celebrated every 13–15 April), depending on the purpose of the use.lt;/ref>

History

Ancient world

Astrology, in its broadest sense, is the search for meaning in the sky. It has therefore been argued that astrology began as a study as soon as human beings made conscious attempts to measure, record, and predict seasonal changes by reference to astronomical cycles.lt;/ref>Early evidence of such practices appears as markings on bones and cave walls, which show that lunar cycles were being noted as early as 25,000 years ago; the first step towards recording the Moon’s influence upon tides and rivers, and towards organizing a communal calendar.lt;/ref>Agricultural needs were also met by increasing knowledge of constellations, whose appearances change with the seasons, allowing the rising of particular star-groups to herald annual floods or seasonal activities.lt;/ref>By the 3rd millennium BCE, widespread civilizations had developed sophisticated awareness of celestial cycles, and are believed to have consciously oriented their temples to create alignment with the heliacal risings of the stars.lt;/ref> There is scattered evidence to suggest that the oldest known astrological references are copies of texts made during this period. Two, from the Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa (compiled in Babylon around 1700 BCE) are reported to have been made during the reign of king Sargon of Akkad (2334–2279 BCE).Two texts which refer to the omens of Sargon are reported in E. F. Weidner, ‘Historiches Material in der Babyonischen Omina-Literatur’ Altorientalische Studien ed. Bruno Meissner, (Leipzig, 1928-9), v. 231 and 236. Another, showing an early use of electional astrology is ascribed to the reign of the Sumer an ruler Gudea of Lagash (c. 2144 – 2124 BCE). This describes how the gods revealed to him in a dream the constellations that would be most favorable for the planned construction of a temple.From scroll A of the ruler Gudea of Lagash, I 17 – VI 13. O. Kaiser, Texte aus der Umwelt des Alten Testaments Bd. 2, 1–3. Gütersloh, 1986–1991. Also quoted in A. Falkenstein, ‘Wahrsagung in der sumerischen Überlieferung’, La divination en Mésopotamie ancienne et dans les régions voisines Paris, 1966. However, there is controversy about whether they were genuinely recorded at the time or merely ascribed to ancient rulers by posterity. The oldest undisputed evidence of the use of astrology as an integrated system of knowledge is therefore attributed to the records of the first dynasty of Mesopotamia (1950–1651 BCE). The system of Chinese astrology was elaborated during the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BCE) and flourished during the Han Dynasty (2nd century BCE to 2nd century CE), during which all the familiar elements of traditional Chinese culture – the Yin-Yang philosophy, theory of the five elements, Heaven and Earth, Confucian morality – were brought together to formalise the philosophical principles of Chinese medicine and divination, astrology and alchemy.

Medieval Islamic world

File Translation of Albumasar Venice 1515 De Magnis Coniunctionibus.jpg translation of Abū Maʿshars De Magnis Coniunctionibus(‘Of the great Conjunction (astronomy and astrology) ), Venice 1515.]]Astrology was taken up by Islamic scholars following the collapse of Alexandria to the Arabs in the 7th century, and the founding of the Abbasid Caliphate in the 8th. The second Abbasid caliph Al Mansur (754–775) founded the city of Baghdad to act as a centre of learning, and included in its design a library-translation centre known as Bayt al-Hikma‘Storehouse of Wisdom’, which continued to receive development from his heirs and was to provide a major impetus for Arabic-Persian translations of Hellenistic astrological texts. The early translators included Mashallah ibn Athari who helped to elect the time for the foundation of Baghdad,lt;/ref> and Sahl ibn Bishr (a.k.a.Zael, whose texts were directly influential upon later European astrologers such as Guido Bonatti in the 13th century, and William Lilly in the 17th century. Knowledge of Arabic texts started to become imported into Europe during the Latin translations of the 12th century the effect of which was to help initiate the European Renaissance

Medieval

Many historical writers whose works have shaped the development of literature have used astrological symbolism to add subtlety and nuance to their literary themes. For example, Dante Alighieri s Divine Comedy (early 14th century) builds varied references to planetary associations within his described architecture of Hell Purgatory and Paradise (such as the seven layers of Purgatorys mountain purging the Seven deadly sins that correspond to astrologys classical planets .Joseph Crane, Planetary Symbolism & Medieval Literature http://www.skyscript.co.uk/crane.html Skyscript], August, 2011. Similar astrological allegories and planetary themes are pursued through the works of Geoffrey Chaucer lt;ref>cite web | titleEssential Chaucer: Science, including astrology| authorM. Allen, J.H. Fisher | publisherUniversity of Texas, San Antonio |urlhttp://colfa.utsa.edu/chaucer/ec22.html | accessdate2006-07-17}}lt;/ref> (late 14th century), William Shakespeare lt;ref>cite web | titleShakespeares Astrology | authorF. Piechoski|urlhttp://starcats.com/anima/shakespeare.html}} (late 16th/early 17th century) and John Milton (17th century). Chaucers astrological passages are particularly frequent and knowledge of astrological basics is often assumed through his work. He knew enough of his periods astrology and astronomy to write a [[Treatise on the Astrolabe]]for his son. He pinpoints the early spring season of the Canterbury Tales in the opening verses of the prologue by noting that the Sun "hath in the Aries (astrology) his halfe cours yronne".Geoffrey Chaucer [[The Canterbury Tales]] Prologue He makes the Wife of Bath refer to "sturdy hardiness" as an attribute of Mars (astrology) and associates Mercury (astrology) with "clerkes".C. S. Lewis [[The Discarded Image]](Cambridge University Press, 1964; ISBN 978-0-521-47735-2) pp. 106-107.

Early Modern

By the 17th century, in England, astrology had reached its zenith.Cummins A (2012) The Starry Rubric: Seventeenth-Century English Astrology and Magic, p. 3. France:Hadean Press Astrologers were theorists, researchers, and social engineers, as well as providing individual advice to everyone from monarchs downwards. Among other things, astrologers could advise on the best time to take a journey or harvest a crop, diagnose and prescribe for physical or mental illnesses, and predict natural disasters. This underpinned a system in which everything - people, the world, the universe - was understood to be interconnected, and astrology co-existed happily with religion Magic (supernatural) and science Cummins A (2012) The Starry Rubric: Seventeenth-Century English Astrology and Magic, p. 43-45. France:Hadean Press

Since 1900

Astrology saw a popular revival starting in the 19th century as part of a general revival of spiritualism and later New Age philosophy and through the influence of mass media such as newspaper horoscopesand astrology software Early in the 20th century psychologist Carl Jung developed some concepts concerning astrology,lt;/ref> which led to the development of psychological astrology lt;/ref>lt;ref>Gieser, Suzanne. The Innermost Kernel, Depth Psychology and Quantum Physics. Wolfgang Pauli’s Dialogue with C.G.Jung (Springer, Berlin, 2005) p. 21 ISBN 3-540-20856-9Campion, Nicholas. "Prophecy, Cosmology and the New Age Movement. The Extent and Nature of Contemporary Belief in Astrology.( Bath Spa University College, 2003) via Campion, Nicholas, History of Western Astrology (Continuum Books, London & New York, 2009) pp. 248, 256, ISBN 978-1-84725-224-1 The most famous piece of music to be influenced by astrology is undoubtedly the orchestral suite [[The Planets]] Written by the British composer Gustav Holst (1874–1934), and first performed in 1918, the framework of The Planetsis based upon the astrological symbolism of the planets.Campion, Nicholas.:A History of Western Astrology: Volume II: The Medieval and Modern Worlds (Continuum Books, 2009) pp.244-245 ISBN 978-1-84725-224-1 Each of the seven movements of the suite is based upon a different planet. The order of the movements does not follow the order of the planets from the Sun. However, in keeping with its astrological themes, they do reflect the order of the signs of the zodiac by planetary rule. The composer and Holst specialist Colin Matthews wrote an eighth movement entitled "Pluto, the Renewer", which was first performed in 2000. However, with Plutos recategorization to dwarf planet status by the International Astronomical Union in 2006,Akwagyiram,Alexis. Farewell Pluto?BBC News Channel. 2 August 2005 http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/4737647.stm] Holsts original work is now as complete as when he wrote it. In 1937, another British composer, Constant Lambert wrote a ballet on astrological themes, called [[Horoscope (ballet)|Horoscope]] The full score was lost in the Netherlands in the Second World War but some excerpts survive. In 1974, the New Zealand composer Edwin Carr (composer) wrote The Twelve Signsfor wind, brass, piano, harp and percussion. In the West there have been occasional reports of political leaders consulting astrologers. Louis de Wohl worked as an astrologer for the British intelligence agency MI5 after it was claimed that Hitler used astrology to time his actions. The War Office was "interested to know what Hitlers own astrologers would be telling him from week to week".lt;/ref> In fact de Wohls predictions were so inaccurate that he was soon labelled a "complete charlatan" and it was later shown that Hitler considered astrology to be "complete nonsense".lt;/ref> After John Hinckley s attempted assassination of U.S. President Ronald Reagan first lady Nancy Reagan commissioned astrologer Joan Quigley to act as the secret White House astrologer. However, Quigleys role ended in 1988 when it became public through the memoirs of former chief of staff, Donald Regan * * lt;/ref> File Bdrates of Japan since 1950.svg In India, there is a long-established and widespread belief in astrology. It is commonly used for daily life, particularly in matters concerning marriage and career, and makes extensive use of electional astrology horary astrology and karmic astrology lt;/ref>lt;/ref> Indian politics has also been influenced by astrology.lt;/ref> It remains considered a branch of the Vedanga "In countries such as India, where only a small intellectual elite has been trained in Western physics, astrology manages to retain here and there its position among the sciences." David Pingree and Robert Gilbert, "Astrology; Astrology In India; Astrology in modern times". Encyclopædia Britannica 2008Mohan Rao, Female foeticide: where do we go? Indian Journal of Medical EthicsOct-Dec 2001 9(4) http://www.issuesinmedicalethics.org/094co123.html] In 2001, Indian scientists and politicians debated and critiqued a proposal to use state money to fund research into astrology,lt;/ref> resulting in permission for Indian universities to offer courses in Vedic astrology.lt;/ref> In February 2011, the Bombay High Court reaffirmed astrologys standing in India when it dismissed a case which had challenged its status as a science.Astrology is a science: Bombay HC, http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Astrology-is-a-science-Bombay-HC/articleshow/7418795.cms The Times of India], 3 February 2011 In Japan a strong belief in astrology has led to dramatic changes in the fertility rate and the number of abortions in the years of "Fire Horse". Women born in hinoeumayears are believed to be unmarriageable and to bring bad luck to their father or husband. In 1966, the number of babies born in Japan dropped by over 25% as parents tried to avoid the stigma of having a daughter born in the hinoeuma year.lt;/ref>lt;/ref>

Scientific appraisal

Astrology has been rejected by the scientific community as having no explanatory power for describing the universe. Astrology Scientific appraisal of astrology has been conducted, and no evidence has been found to support any of the premises or purported effects outlined in astrological traditions.lt;/ref> File Karl Popper.jpg Science and non-science are often distinguished by the criterion of falsifiability The criterion was first proposed by philosopher of science Karl Popper To Popper, science does not rely on Inductive reasoning instead scientific investigations are inherently attempts to falsify existing theories through novel tests. If a single test fails, then the theory is falsified. Therefore, any test of a scientific theory must prohibit certain results which will falsify the theory, and expect other specific results which will be consistent with the theory. Using this criterion of falsifiability, astrology is a pseudoscience.lt;/ref> Popper regarded astrology as "pseudo-empirical" in that "it appeals to observation and experiment", but "nevertheless does not come up to scientific standards". * The relevant piece is also published in, lt;/ref> In contrast to scientific disciplines, astrology has not responded to falsification through experiment. According to Professor of neurology Terence Hines this is a hallmark of pseudoscience. lt;/ref> Astrology has not demonstrated its effectiveness in Empiricism and has no scientific validity,lt;/ref> and as such, is regarded as pseudoscience lt;ref nameSandPSandAstroSoc> * lt;/ref>lt;/ref> Where astrology has made falsifiable predictions, it has been falsified.In the most famous example, the Carlson test, which included a committee of scientists and a committee of astrologers, led to the conclusion that Natal astrology performed no better than chance. Astrologer and psychologist Michel Gauquelin, claimed to have found statistical support for "the Mars effect in the birth dates of athletes, but it couldnt be replicated in further studies. The organizers of later studies claimed that Gauquelin had tried to influence their inclusion criteria for the study, by suggesting specific individuals be removed. It has also been suggested that the reporting of birth times by parents (before the 1950s) may have caused the apparent effect. The majority of professional astrologers rely on performing astrology-based personality tests and making relevant predictions about the remunerators future.Those who continue to have faith in astrology have been characterized as doing so "in spite of the fact that there is no verified scientific basis for their beliefs, and indeed that there is strong evidence to the contrary". * http://thehumanist.org/the-humanist-archive/ The Humanist], volume 36, no.5 (1976). * lt;/ref> Astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson commented on astrological belief, saying that "part of knowing how to think is knowing how the laws of nature shape the world around us. Without that knowledge, without that capacity to think, you can easily become a victim of people who seek to take advantage of you".lt;/ref> Astrologers often avoid making verifiable predictions and instead rely on making vague statements which allows them to try to avoid falsification.Across several centuries of testing, the predictions of astrology have never been more accurate than that expected by chance alone. One approach used in testing astrology quantitatively is through blind experiment When specific predictions from astrologers were tested in rigorous experimental procedures in the Carlson test, the predictions were falsifiability There is no proposed mechanism of action by which the positions and motions of stars and planets could affect people and events on Earth that does not contradict well understood, basic aspects of biology and physics.lt;/ref> lt;ref nameAsquithNSF> * lt;/ref>

Theological viewpoints

Some of the practices of astrology were contested on theological grounds by medieval Muslim astronomers such as Al-Farabi (Alpharabius), Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) and Avicenna They said that the methods of astrologers conflicted with orthodox religious views of Ulema through the suggestion that the Will of God can be known and predicted in advance.lt;/ref> For example, Avicenna’s Refutation against astrology Risāla fī ibṭāl aḥkām al-nojūm argues against the practice of astrology while supporting the principle of planets acting as the agents of divine causation which express Gods absolute power over creation. Avicenna considered that the movement of the planets influenced life on earth in a deterministic way, but argued against the capability of determining the exact influence of the stars.Catarina Belo, Catarina Carriço Marques de Moura Belo, Chance and determinism in Avicenna and Averroës p. 228. Brill, 2007. ISBN 90-04-15587-2. In essence, Avicenna did not refute the essential dogma of astrology, but denied our ability to understand it to the extent that precise and fatalistic predictions could be made from it.George Saliba Avicenna viii. Mathematics and Physical Sciences. Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition, 2011, available at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avicenna-viii Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya (1292–1350), in his Miftah Dar al-SaCadah also used physics arguments in astronomy to question the practice of judicial astrology.lt;/ref> He recognized that the star are much larger than the planet , and argued: lt;/ref>}} Belief in astrology is incompatible with Catholicism beliefslt;/ref> such as free will. According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church lt;/ref>|Catechism of the Catholic Church}} St. Augustine believed that astrology conflicted with church doctrine, but he grounded his opposition with non-theological reasons such as the failure of astrology to explain twins who behave differently although are conceived at the same moment and born at approximately the same time.lt;/ref>

See also

*List of astrological traditions, types, and systems

Notes

References

Further reading

* Forer, Bertram R. http://pt.scribd.com/doc/105681300/Forer-The-Fallacy-of-Personal-Validation-1949 "The Fallacy of Personal Validation: A Classroom Demonstration of Gullibility," The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol 44(1), Jan., 1949. * Thorndike, Lynn. The True Place of Astrology in the History of Science,Isis, Vol. 46, No. 3, Sep., 1955. * Wedel, Theodore Otto. http://archive.org/stream/medivalattitud00wede#page/n9/mode/2up The Mediæval Attitude Toward Astrology: Particularly in England, Yale University Press, 1920.

External links

* * http://cura.free.fr/DIAL.html Digital International Astrology Library] at http://cura.free.fr/index.html# C.U.R.A. (Centre Universitaire de Recherche en Astrologie) International Astrology Research Center]; (Retrieved 15 November 2011). Category Astrology Category Hermeticism Category Popular psychology Category Superstitions Category Symbolism Category Pseudoscience